Chapter 9: The Role of the Translator - Visibility, Ethics & Sociology
➢ The role of the translator is complex and multifaceted (having many sides). Translators are responsible for conveying the meaning of a text from one language to another, but they also play a role in shaping the way that text is interpreted and understood. This is why the visibility, ethics, and sociology of translation are all important considerations for translators.
★ Visibility
➢ In the past, translators were often invisible, their work hidden behind the text that they produced. However, in recent years, there has been a growing movement to bring translators out of the shadows and to recognize their important role in society. This movement has been fueled by a number of factors, including the increasing globalization of communication and the rise of new technologies that make it easier to share translated texts.
➢ As translators become more visible, they are also becoming more accountable for their work. This is because they are now more likely to be asked to explain their choices and to justify their decisions. This can be a challenge for translators, who are often used to working behind the scenes. However, it is also an opportunity for translators to play a more active role in shaping the way that texts are translated and understood.
★ Ethics
➢ Translation is not just a technical exercise. It is also an ethical act. Translators have a responsibility to be faithful to the original text, but they also have a responsibility to make the text accessible and understandable to the target audience. This can be a difficult balance to strike, and it is one that translators must grapple (cope/manage/deal) with on a daily basis.
➢ There are a number of ethical considerations that translators must take into account when translating a text. These include:
● The accuracy of the translation: Translators must ensure that the translation is as accurate as possible, while still being faithful to the original text.
● The readability of the translation: The translation must be easy to read and understand for the target audience.
● The cultural appropriateness of the translation: The translation must be culturally appropriate for the target audience, without altering the meaning of the original text.
● The ethical neutrality of the translation: The translation must not be biased or slanted in any way.
★ Sociology
➢ Translation is not just a linguistic activity. It is also a social activity that is shaped by the cultural and political context in which it takes place. Translators must be aware of the social and political implications of their work, and they must make choices that are ethical and responsible.
➢ One of the most important aspects of the sociology of translation is the power dynamics that are involved in the translation process. Translators often work for clients who have a vested (fixed) interest in the outcome of the translation. This can create a conflict of interest for translators, who may feel pressure to produce a translation that reflects the client's wishes, rather than the original text.
➢ Translators must also be aware of the role that they play in shaping the way that people from different cultures interact with each other. Translation can be a powerful tool for promoting understanding and tolerance, but it can also be used to spread misinformation and propaganda. Translators must be mindful of the potential impact of their work, and they must use their skills to promote positive change in the world.
In this chapter, we concentrate on research that deals with the position and involvement of the translator and others involved in the translation process. We see how this is manifested in the methods and strategies of their translation practice
1. The Cultural and Political Agenda of Translation
➢ Lawrence Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.
➢ His book The Translator's Invisibility (1995) is an influential work in translation studies that argues that translation is not a neutral act of communication, but rather a political and cultural act that shapes the way that we understand the world.
➢ In addition to The Translator's Invisibility, Venuti has also written several other books on translation, including The Scandals of Translation (1998), Translation Studies Reader (2000), and The Translation Studies Reader (2004).
➢ The Translator’s Invisibility (1995/2018) draws on Venuti’s own experience as a translator of experimental Italian poetry and fiction. Invisibility is a term he uses ‘to describe the translator’s situation and activity in contemporary British and American cultures.’
➢ He believes that translations are not as good as original works of literature. He thinks that translations are always going to be inferior to the original work, because they can never perfectly capture the meaning and style of the original text.
➢ Translators in the English-speaking world have traditionally tried to make their translations as invisible as possible. They have done this by using natural-sounding English, avoiding foreign words and phrases, and not mentioning the translator's name in the book. Translations are still not seen as being as important as original works of literature. They are often not studied in schools or universities, and they are rarely awarded literary prizes.
➢ He believes that this is a problem, because it devalues the work of translators and it limits the exposure of readers to foreign cultures. He argues that translators should be more visible and that translations should be considered to be a form of literary scholarship. Venuti proposes two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization.
➢ Domestication is the strategy of making the translated text as similar as possible to the target culture. Venuti sees domestication as dominating British and American translation culture. This is the most common translation strategy, and it is often used in commercial translations. For example, a translator might domesticate a French text by using English words and phrases that are familiar to the target audience.
➢ Foreignization is the strategy of making the translated text as different as possible from the target culture. This strategy is often used in literary translations, and it can be used to challenge the reader's expectations and to make them aware of the cultural differences between the source and target cultures. For example, a translator might foreignize a French text by using French words and phrases that are unfamiliar to the target audience.
➢ Foreignization is a translation strategy that was first proposed by the German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher in the 19th century. Schleiermacher argued that translators should not try to make the ST as similar as possible to the TL, but rather they should try to preserve the foreignness of the ST. This is because Schleiermacher believed that translations should be a way for readers to learn about other cultures and to challenge their own assumptions.
➢ Venuti argues that foreignization is a more ethical and responsible translation strategy than domestication, because it does not attempt to erase the cultural and linguistic differences of the ST. He also argues that foreignization can be a way to challenge the dominant cultural values of the TL.
➢ He asserts that domestication is the dominant translation strategy in the English-speaking world, and he criticizes it for its tendency to erase the cultural and linguistic differences of the source text. He argues that foreignization is a more ethical and responsible translation strategy, because it allows readers to encounter the foreign text on its own terms.
➢ Venuti's work has been influential in translation studies, and it has helped to raise awareness of the cultural and political implications of translation. His work has also inspired other translation scholars to develop new translation theories and strategies.
➢ Venuti links foreignization to minoritizing translation. Minoritizing makes the translator visible too.
Ethical level: Domestication (respect of the TL culture values) and Foreignization (making the foreign visible )
Discursive level: Fluency ( transparent reading of the TL) and Resistancy (resistant reading of the TL)
Domestication and Foreignization are ethical choices, strategies toward a foreign text and culture chosen by the translator.
➢ Antoine Berman - Negative analytic and deformation of translation:
● Questions of how much a translation assimilates (absorbs) a foreign text and how far it signals difference had already attracted the attention of the noted French theorist Antoine Berman. Berman’s negative analytic attacks the homogenization of the translation of literary prose. He describes translation as a trial in two senses: 1) For the target culture in experiencing the strangeness of the foreign text and word. 2) For the foreign text to be uprooted from its original language context. Berman thinks that the ethical aim of the translating act is receiving the ‘foreign as foreign’. He considers that there is generally a system of textual deformation: This examination of the forms of deformation is termed negative analytic. He identifies 12 ‘deforming tendencies’.
1. Rationalization: This is the tendency to modify the syntactic structures of the source text (ST), including punctuation and sentence structure and order. This can be done to make the text easier to understand, but it can also lead to a loss of meaning and nuance.
2. Clarification: This is the tendency to make the ST clearer and more explicit. This can be done by adding words and phrases, or by changing the order of words. However, it is important to be careful not to add too much clarification, as this can make the text sound unnatural.
3. Expansion: This is the tendency for translations to be longer than the ST. This can be due to a number of factors, including rationalization, clarification, and the addition of footnotes and other explanatory material.
4. Ennoblement: This is the tendency to make the ST sound more elegant or sophisticated. This can be done by using more formal language, or by changing the style of the text. However, it is important to be careful not to over-ennoble the text, as this can make it sound artificial.
5. Qualitative impoverishment: This is the tendency to replace words and expressions in the ST with words and expressions in the target language (TL) that are less rich in meaning or connotation. This can happen for a number of reasons, including the lack of a suitable equivalent in the TL, or the translator's own preferences.
6. Quantitative impoverishment: This is the tendency to use fewer words and expressions in the TT than in the ST. This can happen for a number of reasons, including the desire to make the TT more concise, or the translator's own preferences.
7. The destruction of rhythms: This is the tendency to destroy the rhythm of the ST by changing the word order or punctuation. This can happen unintentionally, or it can be done deliberately as a way of making the TT sound more natural in the TL.
8. The destruction of underlying networks of signification: This is the tendency to destroy the network of words and meanings that is created in the ST. This can happen by replacing words with synonyms, or by changing the order of words.
9. The destruction of linguistic patternings: This is the tendency to destroy the systematic patterns of language that are found in the ST. This can happen by rationalizing the text, or by making changes to the sentence structure.
10. The destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization: This is the tendency to destroy the local speech and language patterns that are found in the ST. This can happen by replacing vernacular terms with more standard terms, or by exoticizing the text by using TL terms that are not familiar to the target audience.
11. The destruction of expressions and idioms: This is the tendency to replace expressions and idioms in the ST with their TL equivalents. This can lead to a loss of meaning and nuance, as expressions and idioms often have multiple meanings and associations.
12. The effacement of the superimposition of languages: This is the tendency to erase the traces of different languages that are found in the ST. This can happen by translating all of the languages into the TL, or by making changes to the text that make it appear as if it was originally written in the TL.
Berman argues that these deforming tendencies are all too common in translations, and that they can have a significant impact on the meaning and quality of the text. He calls on translators to be aware of these tendencies and to take steps to avoid them.
2. The Position and Positionality of the Translator
➢ Translators often consider that their work is spontaneous and that they must be ‘led’ by their language and listen to their ‘ear’.
➢ Feltsiner makes the important point that much of the work that goes into producing a translation ‘becomes invisible once the new poem stands intact’.
➢ Levine and her method consists in ‘destroying’ the original form but reproducing the same meaning in a new form.
➢ The position and positionality of the translator in translation studies refers to the role and perspective of the translator in the translation process. Traditionally, the translator has been seen as a neutral mediator between the source text and the target text, responsible for conveying the meaning of the original text as accurately as possible. However, in recent years, there has been a growing awareness of the fact that the translator is not a passive agent, but rather an active participant in the translation process. The translator's own cultural background, linguistic skills, and ideological beliefs all play a role in shaping the translation.
➢ The concept of positionality is used to highlight the fact that the translator is always situated in a particular context, which includes their own personal history, social location, and professional training. This context influences the translator's choices and decisions in the translation process. For example, a translator who is translating a text from a colonial power to a former colony may be more likely to adopt a foreignizing approach, which preserves the cultural specificity of the original text.
➢ The position and positionality of the translator is a complex and contested issue. There is no single answer to the question of how the translator should position themselves in the translation process. However, by understanding the factors that influence the translator's positionality, we can better appreciate the role of the translator in the translation process and the challenges they face.
➢ Some of the factors that can influence the positionality of the translator:
● The translator's cultural background and identity
● The translator's linguistic skills and knowledge
● The translator's ideological beliefs
● The purpose of the translation
● The intended audience for the translation
● The context in which the translation is being produced
➢ To conclude, the position and positionality of the translator are important concepts in translation studies that refer to the translator's role and individual factors that can influence the translation process. Translators are not neutral transmitters of information, but active agents who make interpretative decisions about how to represent the source text in the target language.
3. The Sociology and Historiography of Translation
➢ The sociology of translation is a subfield of translation studies that examines the social and cultural factors that influence the translation process. It looks at how translation is shaped by the social and cultural context in which it takes place, such as the political climate, the economic situation, and the prevailing cultural values. The historiography of translation, on the other hand, is the study of the history of translation. It examines how translation has been practiced and thought about over time, and how it has been influenced by different cultures and historical periods.
➢ Pierre Bourdieu, a French ethnographer and sociologist, has provided his concepts of the field of social activity, the translation and its participants (reader,author,translator,editor). Some of the concepts of Pierre Bourdieu that have been used in the sociology of translation:
● Habitus: Habitus is a system of dispositions that individuals acquire through their social experiences. It is a set of embodied, unconscious practices and beliefs that shape the way we think and act. In the context of translation, habitus can influence the translator's choices and decisions, such as the way they select and interpret the source text, and the way they translate it.
● Field: A field is a social space in which people compete for resources and status. In the context of translation, the field of translation can be seen as the network of institutions, actors, and practices that are involved in the production and distribution of translations. The field of translation is shaped by the political, economic, and cultural factors of the society in which it is located.
● Capital: Capital is a resource that can be used to gain power and status in a field. In the context of translation, capital can be linguistic, cultural, or social. Linguistic capital refers to the translator's knowledge of languages and cultures. Cultural capital refers to the translator's knowledge of the target culture and its values. Social capital refers to the translator's network of contacts and relationships.
● Legitimation: Legitimation is the process by which a practice or institution is given social approval. In the context of translation, legitimation can be seen as the process by which translation is recognized as a legitimate profession and a valuable cultural activity.
➢ These are the concepts of Pierre Bourdieu that have been used in the sociology of translation. The sociology of translation is a growing field of research, and there are many other concepts and theories that are being used to study the social and cultural dimensions of translation.
➢ The choices that translators make are influenced by the social and cultural factors of the field in which they operate. The Italian literary field, for example, is more focused on classical Greek and Latin poetry than the French literary field. This is why Italian poets translated more from these languages than French poets. Similarly, the more autonomous and diversified publishing market in France means that French publishers are more likely to take risks on translations from non-western and peripheral European languages.
4. The Power Network of the Translation Industry
➢ Translators are not always free to choose translation strategies because of the influence of the economy. Venuti lamented that translators work to meet the demands of the readers and in this way the profit is the least important. He describes it as a form of repression by the industry. Venuti thinks that for some authors, the process of writing consists just in writing in English. He sees this as another example of cultural England’s hegemony.
➢ The power network of the translation industry is a complex and ever-changing landscape. There are many different actors involved in the industry, each with their own interests and goals. These actors include:
● Translators: Translators are the professionals who are responsible for converting text from one language to another. They play a vital role in the global economy, as they facilitate communication and understanding between people from different cultures.
● Language service providers (LSPs): LSPs are businesses that provide translation and other language-related services. They typically employ translators and other language professionals, and they also provide marketing, project management, and other support services.
● Clients: Clients are the people or organizations that commission translations. They can be businesses, government agencies, or individuals.
● Publishers: Publishers are businesses that produce and distribute books, magazines, newspapers, and other printed materials. They often commission translations of foreign-language works.
● Academic institutions: Academic institutions are places where research on translation is conducted and where translators are trained. They also play a role in promoting the translation industry through conferences, workshops, and other events.
➢ The power dynamics between these actors are complex and constantly shifting. However, there are some general trends that can be observed. For example, LSPs have become increasingly powerful in recent years, as they have consolidated (made stronger) their market share and gained control of the supply of translation services. This has led to concerns about the quality of translations and the exploitation of translators.
➢ Another trend is the increasing importance of technology in the translation industry. Translation software and machine translation are becoming more sophisticated, and they are beginning to play a role in many translation projects. This is likely to have a significant impact on the power dynamics in the industry, as it could lead to the displacement of some translators.
➢ The power network of the translation industry is a complex and ever-changing landscape. It is important to understand the dynamics of this network in order to make informed decisions about the translation process.
➢ Some factors that influence the power dynamics of the translation industry are:
● The size and market share of the LSPs
● The level of competition in the industry
● The availability of translation technology
● The demand for translation services
● The cultural and political factors that influence the translation process
➢ The power dynamics of the translation industry are constantly evolving. It is important to stay up-to-date on these changes in order to maintain a competitive advantage.
➢ Translation can be a form of cultural exchange and political action, and the power dynamics within the translation industry can reflect broader societal power structures. Understanding the power network of the translation industry can benefit from a combination of translation history, sociology, and other sociological theories.
5. The Reception and Reviewing of Translations
➢ Meg Brown's study of Latin American novels published in West Germany in the 1980s shows that the way a translation is received is influenced by the publishing industry.
➢ Reviews play an important role in informing the public about recently published books and in preparing the readership for the work. Brown adopts ideas from reception theory, which examines how a work conforms to, challenges, or disappoints the readers' expectations.
➢ These expectations are shaped by the genre or series to which the new work belongs. In other words, the way that a translation is received is influenced by the following factors:
● The publishing industry: The publishing industry plays a role in shaping the readers' expectations of a translation. For example, if a translation is published by a prestigious publisher, it is more likely to be reviewed by critics and to be taken seriously by readers.
● Reviews: Reviews can help to shape the way that readers perceive a translation. A positive review can help to increase the visibility and sales of a translation, while a negative review can discourage readers from reading it.
● Reception theory: Reception theory is a theory of literary criticism that focuses on the way that readers interact with texts. This theory can be used to understand how readers' expectations influence their reception of translations.
➢ The link between the workings of the publishing industry and the reception of a given translation is a complex one. However, by understanding these factors, we can better understand how translations are received and judged.
➢ There’s not just one model for the analysis of the reviews in translation.
➢ Gérard Genette, a cultural theorist, divides paratexts (that are above or beyond the printed text; interpretations of text) into two categories: peritexts and epitexts.
➢ Peritexts are paratextual elements that appear in the same location as the text, such as the title, subtitle, and preface.
➢ Epitexts are paratextual elements that are not physically attached to the text, such as marketing and promotional material, correspondence on the text by the author, and reviews.
➢ The paratext can influence the way that readers perceive and interpret the text. By analyzing the paratext, we can better understand how reviews of translations shape the reception of these texts.
➢ Reception theory is a theory of literary criticism that focuses on the way that readers interact with texts. This theory can be used to understand how the paratext influences the reception of translations.
● For example, a synchronic (concerned with something/co-occurring) analysis of reviews would examine a range of reviews of a single work. This could help to identify the different ways that the text is interpreted by different readers.
● A diachronic (historical) analysis of reviews would examine reviews of books of an author or newspaper over a longer time period. This could help to identify changes in the way that the text is received over time.
➢ If we adopt the analytical approach of reception theory, we can analyze reviews Synchronically (co occurring) and Diachronically (historical). Synchronic analysis is the study of a single work in a specific period of time. The Diachronic one is the examination of a work over a longer time span.
➢ By understanding the paratext and reception theory, we can better understand how reviews of translations shape the way that these texts are received by readers.
END OF THE PART
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