Chapter 11: New Directions from Audiovisual Translation and Digital Technology

 Chapter 11: New Directions from Audiovisual Translation and Digital Technology

➢   The rise of multimodal texts and digital technology has changed the landscape of translation.

○     Multimodal texts are texts that combine different modes of communication, such as text, images, audio, and video. This can make translation more challenging, as the translator must consider how to convey the meaning of all of the different modes of communication in the target language.

○     Digital technology has made it easier to create, distribute, and access multimodal texts. This has led to an explosion of new genres of translated texts, such as subtitles, captions, and voiceovers.

○     New translation tools have also been developed to help translators work with multimodal texts. These tools can help with tasks such as transcription, translation, and localization.

○     Theories of translation have also had to adapt to the new challenges posed by multimodal texts and digital technology. Scholars are now exploring new ways to think about the translation of meaning in a multimodal context.

➢   New genres, distribution platforms, and reception contexts have emerged.

➢   Translation tools have also evolved, transforming translation practice and forcing theorists to rethink old concepts.

➢   This chapter focuses on two specific areas of new development: audiovisual translation and localization, globalization, and transcreation.

○     Audiovisual translation is the translation of films, television shows, and other audiovisual content. This can be a challenging task, as the translator must not only convey the meaning of the dialogue, but also the visual elements of the text.

○     Localization is the adaptation of a product or service for a specific market or culture. This can involve translation, but it can also involve changes to the content, format, or design of the product or service.

○     Globalization is the trend towards the internationalization of markets and cultures. This has led to an increased demand for translation and localization services.

○     Transcreation is a type of translation that goes beyond simply conveying the meaning of the original text. It involves adapting the text for a specific audience or purpose.

1.   Audiovisual Translation

                                         i.         Early days: Translation or Adaptation

➢   Audiovisual translation (AVT) is the translation of films, television shows, video games, and other audiovisual content. It is a challenging field of translation, as the translator must not only convey the meaning of the dialogue, but also the visual elements of the text.

➢   There are two main types of AVT: dubbing and subtitling. Dubbing is the replacement of the original dialogue with a new dialogue in the target language. This is often used for feature films and television shows. Subtitling is the insertion of text below the original dialogue, which is translated into the target language. This is often used for documentaries and news programs.

➢   AVT translators must have a deep understanding of both the source language and the target language. They must also have a good understanding of the cultural context of the original text. In addition, they must be familiar with the technical aspects of AVT, such as lip-syncing and sound editing.

➢   Some of the challenges of audiovisual translation are:

➢   Synchronization: The translated text must be synchronized with the original dialogue. This can be a challenge, especially in fast-paced scenes or scenes with a lot of dialogue.

➢   Cultural adaptation: The translator must adapt the text to the cultural context of the target language. This may involve changing the meaning of certain words or phrases, or even omitting certain elements of the text.

➢   Technological limitations: The translator may be limited by the technology used to create the audiovisual content. For example, the translator may not be able to change the length of the dialogue or the font size of the subtitles.

➢   AVT is a relatively new field of translation studies. The first book on AVT was published in 1982, and the field has only really gained traction (grip) in the last few decades. This is due in part to the increasing popularity of audiovisual content, such as films, television shows, and video games.

➢   AVT challenges traditional concepts of translation. Traditional translation studies is based on the idea that translation is the transfer of meaning from one language to another. However, AVT involves the translation of both verbal and non-verbal elements, which makes it more complex than traditional translation.

➢   Early research by Titford (1982) and Mayoral et al. (1988)on AVT focused on the constraints translations (restraints/control) imposed by the presence of non-verbal elements and technical limitations. These constraints include the need to synchronize text with image, the limited space available for subtitles, and the need to adapt the text to the cultural context of the target language.

➢   Some scholars have argued that AVT is closer to adaptation than to translation. This is because AVT translators often need to make changes to the original text in order to accommodate the constraints of the target language and culture. For example, they may need to shorten the text, change the order of the words, or even omit certain elements.

➢   Despite the challenges, AVT is a growing field of translation studies. It is a complex and demanding field, but it also offers a great deal of creative freedom. AVT translators must be skilled in both translation and linguistics, and they must also have a good understanding of the visual elements of the text.

➢   An influential article written by Dirk Delabastita in 1989 titled "Translation and mass-communication: Film and TV translation as evidence of cultural dynamics", marked a significant milestone in the study of audiovisual translation. His descriptive approach to understanding translation within the context of film and TV laid the groundwork for early research in the field. He highlighted that the unique characteristics of audiovisual source texts, characterized by their multi-channel and multi-code communication, require a specialized approach to translation that takes into account the cultural dynamics embedded in these forms of media.

➢   Delabastita's approach to AVT was descriptive in nature, meaning that he aimed to understand and explain the existing practices and characteristics of translation in the context of audiovisual media, rather than prescribing how it should be done. This approach was significant because it laid the foundation for much of the early research in the field of AVT.

➢   Delabastita's main focus was on identifying the distinct features of audiovisual source texts, particularly in the realm of film. He observed that films and TV shows are unique in that they utilize multiple channels of communication and various forms of codes to convey their messages. Unlike traditional written texts, which primarily rely on language to communicate, audiovisual content like films use a combination of visual elements, auditory cues, dialogue, music, and more to create a rich and complex communication experience. This multi-channel and multi-code nature of communication in films adds layers of meaning and cultural dynamics that need to be considered when translating them.

➢   Delabastita doesn't just think about words and pictures when translating movies and TV shows. He knows that sometimes pictures can have words, like signs or letters, and sounds can have meanings too, like music or noise. He talks about how translating all of this can be tricky, but he also talks about the new possibilities it brings, not just the problems.

➢   Because Delabastita talks about how pictures and sounds are important for meaning, the way people think about texts changed. Before, texts were mostly just written words, but now they include pictures and sounds too. Other researchers like Zabalbeascoa and Gottlieb also started talking about these new kinds of texts with more than one way of communicating. This way of thinking about texts with many parts had a big impact on how people talked about translation.

➢   Instead of just focusing on the technical problems, people started using different words to talk about the field of translation related to movies, TV, and other media. In the early 2000s, there were many terms like film translation, screen translation, audiovisual translation, and multimedia translation. But some of these terms were too limited because they didn't cover all the different types of media and genres we have now, like videos on computers, phones, or even outdoor screens. There are also many types of content like video clips, commercials, documentaries, news, and more.

➢   The term "audiovisual translation" became popular because it includes all these different types of media where words, images, and sounds come together to make meaning. It covers things like subtitling, dubbing, voice-over, and more. But there are also new things like translating video games or using crowdsourcing to translate. So, the way people talk about translating movies and other media has changed a lot.

                                       ii.         The Multimodal Source Text

➢   The previous section talked about how audiovisual translation (AVT) changed the way we think about texts. Instead of just words, AVT includes visuals and sounds that work together to make meaning. Some early writers like Delabastita (1989), Zabalbeascoa (1993), Gottlieb (1994), and Gambier (2003) noticed this and suggested combining translation studies and film studies to analyze audiovisual texts and AVT better.

➢   Frederic Chaume responded to this idea by proposing an 'integrated' analysis model. He wanted to understand how different parts of movies work together to convey meaning. Chaume focused on dubbing and came up with ten 'codes' that explain how sound is important in movies. The first four concern the acoustic channel and the other six codes relate to the visual channel:

                                                            i.         Linguistic Code: Challenges like wordplay, multiple languages, and culture-specific elements are not unique to AVT but also appear in other translation types. AVT often involves scripted language that needs to sound natural when spoken.

                                                          ii.         Paralinguistic Code: In dubbing scripts, symbols indicate laughter, pauses, etc. Subtitling uses graphical signs (capital letters, exclamation marks) to show voice level, tone, and pauses.

                                                         iii.         Musical and Special Effects Code: This includes representation and adaptation of song lyrics and their function.

                                                        iv.         Sound Arrangement Code: Differences in on-screen and off-screen speakers require changes in subtitling format.

                                                          v.         Iconographic Code: Symbols or references in images may need explanation in translation. Wordplay referring to on-screen items presents challenges.

                                                        vi.         Photographic Codes: Examples of the problems that arise are changes in lighting which involve a change of color for subtitles and also the use of a culture-specific visual or color feature which may confuse or be misunderstood by the TT audience. So, while in Asia white is often associated with death (for example, a white carnation in a Japanese film), in the West it is more commonly the color black. On the other hand, a red carnation may be the symbol of love.

                                                       vii.         Planning Code: Deals with synchronization of lip movements in dubbing and translation of non-verbal on-screen information.

                                                     viii.         Mobility Code: This concerns the positioning of the characters in a dubbed scene and the need to coordinate movement and words (e.g., a shake of the head and a negative phrase in most cultures).

                                                        ix.         Graphic Codes: Focuses on translating on-screen text and subtitles, particularly challenging in dubbing.

                                                          x.         Syntactic Codes: These involve editing principles, such as the checking of the association of a verbal textual element to the image and other semiotic forms, and also the start and end of sequences.

➢   Overall, Chaume's analysis highlights the complexity of AVT by addressing the intricate interplay of different codes that contribute to the effectiveness of audiovisual translation.

➢   The beginning contributions of authors like Chaume marked a big change in how we think about translation. Before, translation studies mainly focused on words, but these authors showed how important other things like pictures and sounds are. However, their early work mainly talked about translating movies and didn't explain fully how everything works together on screen.

➢   As time went on, a new area of research called "multimodality" started growing. Multimodality is all about how different ways of communication, like images, speaking, writing, and gestures, work together. Different researchers have different ways of looking at this, but they all agree on four main ideas:

●     All communication is multimodal.

●     Modes concur together, each with a specific role, and meaning happens out of the specific relations established between modes.

●     Each mode has specific affordances coming out of its own materiality, but also from its historical and social use. These affordances in turn shape how the mode is used to fulfill specific communication needs.

●     Language-focused analysis can only partially investigate complex meaning-making events in which different modes are employed.

➢   Multimodal Social Semiotics (MSS) and influential authors like Kress, van Leuven, Baldry, and Thibault have had a big impact on AVT. MSS talks about "mode" as the different ways we use to communicate, like images, words, and more. It's not random; it's shaped by culture and history. This idea fits well in AVT because movies and shows are carefully made. But this also changed how we think about translation and what we call "text," "source text," and "equivalence."

➢   Experts like Klaus Kaindl (2012) have changed how we think about translation. They say it's not just about changing words between languages, but also about creating texts that work across different cultures. They call translators "text designers" whose job is to make texts that others can understand, not just themselves.

➢   In the world today, communication often uses different things like images, sounds, and words together. For movies and shows, scholars are asking how these things come together to mean something. This idea isn't just for movies - even books for kids have pictures that make meaning, and adult books use things like fonts and layout to shape how we understand them.

➢   Some scholars like Catrysse, Ortabasi, Adami, Ramos Pinto, Kaindl, Marais, and Pérez-González are saying that translation isn't just about language. If we want to translate meaning, we need to think about all the ways that make meaning, not just words. Even things like pictures and sounds can be challenging for people from different cultures, so they need translation too.

                                     iii.         Multimodal Text Analysis and Corpora

●     Corpora - a collection of writing

➢   Christopher Taylor (2003) came up with a way to understand movies and other things with words and images together. He borrowed ideas from others to create a special way of writing down what happens in a movie scene. This helps translators and researchers understand the original text better. But it also showed that the old tools used to study translation, like big collections of texts called "corpora," need to change because they weren't made for understanding this mix of words and pictures.

➢   In Chapters 4 and 7, big collections of texts called "corpora" helped researchers learn about different translation methods and patterns. This same interest in corpora is seen in AVT (translating audiovisual content). Corpora were made for AVT, like the Television in Words (TIWO) corpus, which helps understand how to describe TV shows for the blind.

➢   However, making corpora for both words and pictures is hard because of legal issues, lack of tools, and the constant changing of things like websites. Most AVT corpora are just written versions of spoken parts in movies, with some information about visuals and sounds. But in the future, there might be more ways to study texts with words and pictures together. This is important not only for AVT but also for other areas where words and visuals are used, like websites, books, and news online.

                   iv.         From Target Audience to Participatory Communities

➢   Technology has changed how we do audio-visual translation (AVT). Translators can now work online from anywhere. New platforms like YouTube and Netflix have transformed the industry. AVT and technology are closely connected. This change affects not only how translation is done but also how people understand it.

➢   The way people watch and understand content is changing. Instead of just receiving content, viewers now actively choose what they want to see, when, and how. They also have a say in production and translation. This means the traditional idea of a "target audience" in translation has to change. It's not just about receiving; it's about taking part and making choices.

➢   The first examples of non-professional translators have probably come out of the phenomenon of fansubbing, initially presented mostly as the (legally rather dubious) practice of amateur subtitling and distribution of films, TV series and other film extracts online. Fansubbing was originally used for the translation of mainly Japanese manga and anime cartoons, but the practice quickly proliferated thanks to the greater access to free subtitling software.

➢   Fansubbing (the subtitling of foreign especially by fans) is an example of non-professional translation. People used to translate movies and shows they loved. This practice has evolved, showing that translation isn't just about meaning. People who translate online are more aware of translation challenges and talk about them.

➢   Amateur translation isn't only for movies or TV. Even books like Harry Potter have been translated by fans. The Harry Potter series appeared in unauthorized written translation in several languages, including German, where a collective team of fans translated the fifth volume in less than 48 hours. People now consume, produce, and decide on content. Companies like Facebook ask users to translate pages. This active participation is changing how we understand translation and audiences.

2.   Localization, Globalization & Transcreation

                       i.         From Translation to Localization

➢   In the digital age, translation is a big business. They use the term "GILT" which stands for Globalization, Internationalization, Localization, and Translation.

●     Globalization means organizing business for international markets.

●     Internationalization is about making digital products work everywhere.

●     Localization adapts the product to a specific place and language.

●     Translation is part of localization, making text fit and changing symbols.

➢   Industries blend localization and translation, but localization is wider. It includes translation but also other changes to make a product fit a certain place.:

➢   Localization includes changing cultural symbols that might not be appropriate and translating text. It also means adjusting things to fit on a screen or page. Dunne (2006) says localization is like a central point in a company where development, sales, marketing, legal advice, and management come together. It's where they make sure everything is right for different places.

➢   The line between localization and translation can be unclear. But generally, localization is like a big word that includes translation. Industry experts see it this way. Localisation Industry Standards Association, operational from 1990 to 2011 (LISA), a standards group, said localization means making a product right for a place in terms of language and culture. The Globalization and Localisation Association (GALA), another group, says it's about adjusting a product for a certain place, and translation is just one part of it.

➢   The industry has introduced new terms like 'localization' and 'locale'. Sometimes, they focus more on language changes in 'translation'. For instance, GALA says translation is about understanding meaning from one language to another. New technologies for translation have been explained in books like Esselink (2000) and Austermühl (2001).

➢   For professionals, computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools help align sentences and extract terms from previous work, making translation consistent and faster. Machine translation (MT) tools automatically translate, mainly for understanding. Free online tools like Google Translate (https:// translate.google.com) and DeepL Translator (www.deepl.com) do this. The European Commission uses MT to provide a rough draft.

➢   Advances in technology have sparked new theories about how translation is changing. Anthony Pym's book "The Moving Text: Localization, Translation, and Distribution" (2004) is a significant contribution. It explores how translation concepts apply to internationalization, especially in creating versions of software for different languages. This leads to a new model where an internationalized version acts as a basis for local versions. Pym notes that this changes how we see translation, focusing on functionality more than a direct comparison of source and target texts.

➢   Pym also discusses how the process of localization can be dehumanizing, driven by marketing and deadlines. He mentions the rise of collaborative translation (in some cases also known as crowdsourcing), like Facebook and Wikipedia, involving non-professional translators. This raises ethical concerns about quality, payment, and professionalism in translation.

➢   For many years, Ireland has been a central hub for the localization industry in Europe. Michael Cronin, from Ireland, has critically examined translation's role in a digital world. His books "Translation and Globalization" (2003) and "Translation in the Digital Age" (2013) explore how technology is changing translation.

➢   Cronin discusses the idea of 'networks of exchange' in a tech-driven world. While email and communication tools make it easier for translation agencies to work with translators in different countries, access to technology is vital. Translators without access to technology are left out. This technology has changed how translators work and their status. Being disconnected from the digital world can mean not being part of the global translation community.

➢   In the last chapter, Cronin talks about minority languages. He sees translation as both positive and negative for these languages. He believes that translation theory is important for minority languages so they can understand translation policies and use them to their advantage. He suggests a "translation ecology" where speakers and translators of minority languages control what, when, and how texts are translated. This needs translators to be more active and raise awareness about the importance of translation. Current undervaluation of translation leads to underpaid translators and lack of understanding about its historical importance. This approach challenges the idea that translators only support globalization. Recent work on translator activist networks shows that translators fight for fairness and social responsibility in the profession.

                     ii.         From Localization to Transcreation

➢   The translation of video games is not as straightforward as it may seem. It's a mix of different types of translation, like making sure the audiovisual elements are translated correctly and adapting the software to different languages. This combination is often referred to as "game localization." This process requires translators to be creative and original in order to make the game enjoyable for players. They might need to change the names of characters and elements, create new words, and even use different dialects. For example, in a game called Final Fantasy, a weapon with a Chinese name was translated into a shorter English term to fit the game's constraints. Also, a character's speech was given a Cockney London accent in the English version to add humor, even though the original Japanese version didn't have that accent. This shows how translation in video games involves a lot of creativity and adaptation to make the game work well in different languages and cultures.

➢   In fields like game localization and marketing, translation requires a high level of creativity. The term "transcreation" was introduced to describe this creative approach to translation. Originally used by Indian translator P. Lal for adapting Sanskrit plays, it has been adopted by companies looking to stand out from traditional translation firms. The concept contrasts with terms like "domestication," "localization," and "skopos." "Transcreation" emphasizes the creative and transformative aspect of the process. For example, in game localization, the goal is to keep the original's "look and feel" in the target version, which requires creativity. This term combines the creativity of "transcreation" with the concept of maintaining the original's essence, as seen in the discourse of localization and translation.

In this chapter, we've explored how audiovisual translation, localization, globalization, and transcreation have led to significant changes in translation practice and theory. Audiovisual translation has introduced new forms of creative translation for various media, challenging traditional notions of translation and audience. Localization has posed challenges for translators and has become a meeting point between technology, translator identity, and the modern world. These areas demand specialized expertise and interdisciplinary collaboration to be effective. These changes have expanded translation beyond linguistic meaning, leading to the emergence of terms like 'transcreation.'

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