Chapter 2: Thinking and Writing Clearly

Do you believe in UFOs? According to a poll in 2005, 34% of Americans do. In 2007, Japanese Cabinet Secretary Nobutaka Machimura caused quite a stir when he said on TV that UFOs "definitely" exist. But before you answer the question, pause and think about what UFO means. It is actually an abbreviation for "unidentified flying object." In other words, if there is something in the sky and nobody knows what it is, then it is an UFO. On this interpretation, there are certainly plenty of UFOs, but they could have been weather balloons, atmospheric reflections, and so on. Of course, UFO can also mean an alien spaceship. If this is what is meant, then it is not so clear that there are any. 

This example shows that when the meaning of a claim is unclear, it might be impossible to say whether it is true or false. Two people might disagree about the existence of UFOs, but the disagreement is pointless if they are using the term to mean different things. Being clear helps us avoid such verbal disputes. The UFO example also illustrates a crucial habit we should cultivate if we want to become a better thinkers—before accepting a claim, pause to think about what it means and whether we understand what it says. We are bombarded with sound bites and slogans every day, and we should avoid accepting them uncritically. 

Before deciding whether we agree or disagree, we need to clarify. Although we should try to improve the clarity and precision of ideas, this is not an absolute rule. Sometimes there is no need to be clear. We do not need to understand the physics of microwave radiation to use a microwave oven. What is important is that we can explain things clearly when we need to. But what kind of skills do we need to be able to think and communicate ideas clearly? We are going to discuss two methods below: enhancing our sensitivity to the literal meaning and making connections between ideas. 

We ought to be able to identify the literal meaning of a statement and distinguish it from its conversational implicatures. The literal meaning is a property of linguistic expressions. The literal meaning of a sequence of words is determined by its grammatical properties and the meanings that are conventionally assigned to the individual words. For example, the literal meaning of bachelor in English is "an unmarried man". The phrase I cannot be happier literally means it is impossible for the speaker to be happier than he or she is right now. 

The conversational implicature is the information that a speaker implicitly conveys in a particular context, distinct from the literal meaning of what might have been said. Someone who looks at the windows and says, "It is cold here," might be suggesting that the windows be closed. 

But this message is distinct from the literal meaning of the statement. Similarly, the phrase I love books seems to say that the speaker likes reading, but strictly speaking, that is again not part of the literal meaning. The sentence is still true if the speaker does not like to read but loves to collect books as a form of investment or to show off.

Good communication skills require sensitivity to conversational implicatures or related clues such as body language. But we should also be able to use literal meaning to convey ideas directly and explicitly. 

• First, it helps us avoid misunderstanding. 
• Second, the truth of what we say generally depends on literal meaning and not the conversational implicature. 

Suppose I tell you, "I shall try to come to the meeting." This reply is similar to "I will come," but with a significant difference. If I use the first sentence and I fail to show up, I can at least say I tried but could not make it in the end. But if I use the second sentence, I will have made a promise, and failing to show up implies that I have broken my promise and said something false. So if you care about truth and promises, you should care about literal meaning. This is particularly important in law, when it comes to interpreting legislation and contracts. Take the following two clauses for a rental contract. They look similar, but they differ in literal meaning. 

1. You may terminate the lease after 12 months by giving 2 months' notice. 
2. After 12 months, you may give 2 months' notice and terminate the lease. 

This example illustrates an important technique in clarifying meaning. One way to explain differences in literal meaning is to identify their different logical implications. 

• The first clause implies a lease that lasts for a minimum of 12 months (if you give the notice to leave the apartment at the end of the 10th month), whereas the second one implies a minimum lease of 14 months. 
• Obviously, if you are renting an apartment you want more flexibility and to have the option to move out as early as possible if you need to. So the first clause is preferable. 
• As you can see, attention to literal meaning can clarify our rights and duties and help us avoid unnecessary disputes and nasty surprises later on. 

Attention to literal meaning is useful in other contexts as well. 

For example, as consumers, we are naturally concerned about the safety and quality of our food, and to make informed choices we need to pay attention to the meaning of food labels. 

• Nowadays lots of foods are supposed to be low-fat, but low fat does not imply low sugar or low salt. 
• Food with "no artificial flavours" can contain preservatives, and "hormone-free" chicken might be injected with lots of antibiotics. 
• Interestingly enough, the American food company Tyson at one point was selling chickens advertised as "raised without antibiotics" when in fact the chicken eggs were injected with plenty of antibiotics before they hatched! 
• The company insisted that they had not advertised falsely, because "raised" literally applies only to bring up the chicks after they have hatched. Whether you agree with this definition or not, it tells us that those who are concerned about food safety have to be very careful about the meanings of food labels. 

Connecting Ideas:

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) once said, "If you can't explain it simply, you don't understand it well enough." Many people are attracted to obscure/unclear ideas that they cannot explain. They think the ideas are profound/great, and they might well be right. But it is often just an illusion. To avoid such self-deception, we should ensure that we can explain our ideas clearly and systematically. The way to do it is to connect our ideas to other ideas. The following sections present some typical methods. 

1. Give Examples: Understanding words and concepts through examples is central to learning—think about how children learn words like red and vegetables. Being able to give your own examples is a good sign that you understand a concept well enough to apply it. Concrete examples are good for illustrating abstract concepts. The speed of light is about 300,000 kilometres per second. This number means nothing to most people. But explain that at this speed you can go round the world seven times in one second, it suddenly becomes very impressive.
2. Definitions: Definitions can go further than examples in explaining the full meaning of a term. Why are human beings and cows examples of mammals, but fish and turtles are not? You need a definition of mammal to explain why. Definitions are also useful in removing ambiguity and making meaning more precise.
3. Identifying implications: To explain theories, proposals, and rules, we can point to their distinctive consequences. In other words, we explain how they make a difference if they are correct or accepted. For example, utilitarianism is the moral theory that the right thing to do in any situation is to choose the action that will maximise the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. What does that mean? It means we should make more people happy rather than just ourselves. But it also implies that the interests of a small minority can be sacrificed if this will make the majority happier. Similarly, scientists say global warming might lead to a 5°C increase in temperature by 2100. To explain this further, we can list the dire implications, such as rising sea levels, disappearing glaciers, global water shortages, and one-third of all species being threatened with extinction. Understanding the consequences of a theory allows us to see its significance and connect it to other ideas.
4. Compare & Contrast: Understanding something implies knowing how it is different from other things. To explain how sentences P and Q are different in meaning, find a situation in which one is true and the other one is false.
   Similarly, you can explain the differences between concepts by showing that they apply in different situations. Take speed and acceleration. Acceleration is the rate of change of speed. Something moving at a very high speed can in fact have zero acceleration if the speed does not change. Similarly, an object can have a high acceleration if it changes speed very quickly, even if the final speed is very low. In law, there is a difference between charitable and non-profit organisations.
   All charitable organisations are non-profit, but non-profit organisations need not be charitable. Roughly speaking, charitable ones must be for the benefit of the general public. So a club that aims to benefit only certain private members is not charitable, even if it is not for profit.
5. Breaking Things Down: To understand how a complex system works, we can look at its parts and how they interact with each other. A mechanic fixes a car by checking the functions of different parts and see if they fit together properly.
   Similarly, we can explain an idea more clearly by breaking it down.
   Organising ideas like a tree has many advantages. It makes them easier to understand and remember. It also helps us adjust the level of details we want to provide in our explanations to other people. We can start with the ideas at the top level, and go down further and further depending on the audience and the time we have. Some people are incapable of explaining anything without launching into a 10-minute speech. But an intelligent person with a deep understanding is just at ease giving a 10-second explanation as a 10-minute one. 

Five Tips for Effective Writing and Presentation:

Good communication is not just about using words with the right meaning. We also need to think about how ideas are packaged in a way that is attractive and easy to understand. It would be a pity if you put in a lot of effort but still fail to convey your important ideas. The basic rule is simple enough—make sure that your ideas are simple, organised, and relevant to your readers. It is easier said than done, but improving our writing and presentation can improve our critical thinking as well. Here are five general guidelines.

1. Know Your Audience: Focus on the points your audience will find interesting and relevant. We can communicate more effectively and leave a better impression. Ask yourself these questions: 
1. How much does the audience know about the topic Are they professionals or lay people, or both? Provide the appropriate level of information. 
2. What do they expect from you? Is your goal to entertain, to inform, or to demonstrate your knowledge? What would the audience be most interested in? Facts, diagrams, predictions, practical advice, or personal stories? 
3. Should you consider any special requirements about the format? Should you provide handouts? Use a projector? Provide a summary? Is there a word or time limit? 
2. What is your central message and why is it important? : When people remember things, it is because they find something interesting, useful, or funny. So think carefully about the main purpose of your presentation. Is there a take-home message? Focus on it and deliver the message clearly. If everything is important, then nothing will stand out as important. You need to make a choice about which idea to emphasise.
   
   In particular, learn how to formulate a thesis statement for presentation and writing that is analytical in character—that is, involving analyses, arguments, or explanations. The thesis statement is a claim that summarises the most important point you want to make. Suppose you want to write an essay explaining that people worry too much about radiation from mobile phones. Somewhere near the beginning of the essay you should write down your main point. It sets the tone of the essay and shows the reader what he or she might expect later on.
3. Organise Your Ideas: Always begin with some research and analysis before you start typing out the real thing. Read widely and collect data, diagrams, photos, arguments, articles, and web pages and whatever else might be relevant. When you have collected enough material, think about their connections and the proper order of presentation. Develop the habit of using a point-by-point outline to organise your ideas, where each point might be a concept or a short sentence. The outline helps you distill and organise your ideas.
   Organisation also means being clear about the function of every part of your writing. This includes: 
• The whole presentation or article should have different parts. An essay typically starts with an introduction, followed by further background information, the supporting evidence and arguments, potential objections, and a conclusion. 
• Each paragraph should have a clear function—for example, explaining a definition, describing some data, replying to an objection, or adding a qualification. 
4. Be Simple and Direct: Many people think profound writing must be difficult and long. So they use complicated sentences and long words to impress people. This is a mistake. Simple writing conveys ideas more clearly. In a recent study, people who used plain language were judged to be more clever than those who used long words needlessly (Oppenheimer, 2006).
   
   Sometimes people fail to write in a simple way because they want to give as much information as possible. Paradoxically, this can have the opposite effect. People switch off their attention and forget things quickly unless they come across something really interesting. Information overload can therefore bury your main message. So be ruthless and cut out irrelevant material. Go through every word and sentence you have written and see if they can be simplified. Consider this example:
   
   If there are any points on which you require explanation or further particulars we shall be glad to furnish such additional details as may be required by telephone. Our telephone number is 555-5555.
   
   

   This sentence is typical of many company brochures, but it is awkward and unnecessarily long. The following is much simpler: 

   For enquiries, please call 555-5555. 

5. Be Simple and Direct: Below are some other rules for simple and direct writing.
• Break up long sentences (for example, more than 30 words) into shorter ones. Avoid linking sentences with and. 
• Use the active voice instead of the passive voice. "The customer filed a complaint" rather than "A complaint was filed by the customer.”
• Use positive rather than negative terms. "The room was clean.” rather than "The room was not dirty." 
• A good test is to read a passage aloud and see if it sounds clumsy. Easy-to-read text has a higher chance of being understood. 
6. Rewrite, rewrite, rewrite: Good writing does not finish with your first draft. A good author will reread every word and sentence and think about how to make the text even better. Hemingway, who won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1954, said he rewrote the ending to A Farewell to Arms thirty-nine times, just to "get the words right.” Leonardo da Vinci used a mirror to look at his own painting in reverse so it would look less familiar and he could criticise his work better.
   This is why it is a good idea to leave your finished writing aside for a while. Read it aloud again later with a fresh eye, and it will be easier to spot problems. Of course, you can also get someone else to read it and give some advice.
   Re-reading what we have written sounds obvious, but it is surprising how few people do it, even when mistakes are costly. A survey of UK recruitment firms found that more than half of the application CVs they have received contain grammatical and spelling errors, leaving a bad impression on prospective employers. Furthermore, applicants aged between 21 and 25 years made the most mistakes. Most firms also said applicants were wasting their time by including details about their hobbies and interests (BBC, 2010). 

END OF THE PART!